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ОГЛАВЛЕНИЯ ТОМОВ
## ESSAYS ON POLITICAL ECONOMY
## WHAT IS FREE TRADE
## SOPHISMS OF THE PROTECTIONISTS
## ECONOMIC SOPHISMS
## THE LAW
## HARMONIES OF POLITICAL ECONOMY
## PROTECTION AND COMMUNISM
ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЕ ЭССЕ
М. Фредерик Бастиа
Член Института Франции.
ЧТО ТАКОЕ СВОБОДНАЯ ТОРГОВЛЯ?
CONTENTS
CAPITAL AND INTEREST.
Introduction
Capital and Interest
The Sack of Corn
The House
The Plane
THAT WHICH IS SEEN, AND THAT WHICH IS NOT SEEN.
Introduction
The Broken Window
The Disbanding of Troops
Taxes
Theatres, Fine Arts
Public Works
The Intermediates
Restrictions
Machinery
Credit
Algeria
Frugality and Luxury
Work and Profit
Government
What Is Money?
The Law
Адаптация работы Фредерика Бастиа «Экономические софизмы».
ПРЕДНАЗНАЧЕНО ДЛЯ АМЕРИКАНСКОГО ЧИТАТЕЛЯ.
ЭМИЛЬ УОЛТЕР
СОФИЗМЫ ПРОТЕКЦИОНИСТОВ.
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.
vii
CHAPTER I. Plenty and Scarcity
11
CHAPTER II. Obstacles to Wealth and Causes of Wealth
16
CHAPTER III.Effort—Result
20
CHAPTER IV.Equalizing of the Facilities of Production
27
CHAPTER V. Our Productions are Overloaded with Internal Taxes
48
CHAPTER VI.Balance of Trade
55
CHAPTER VII.A Petition
72
CHAPTER VIII.Discriminating Duties
79
CHAPTER IX. A Wonderful Discovery
81
CHAPTER X. Reciprocity
86
CHAPTER XI. Absolute Prices
90
CHAPTER XII.Does Protection raise the Rate of Wages?
95
CHAPTER XIII.Theory and Practice
102
CHAPTER XIV.Conflict of Principles
110
CHAPTER XV.Reciprocity Again
115
CHAPTER XVI.Obstructed Rivers plead for the Prohibitionists
118
CHAPTER XVII.A Negative Railroad
120
CHAPTER XVIII.There are no Absolute Principles
122
CHAPTER XIX.National Independence
126
CHAPTER XX. Human Labor—National Labor
129
CHAPTER XXI.Raw Material
136
CHAPTER XXII.Metaphors
147
CHAPTER XXII.Conclusion
152
М. Фредерик Бастиа
ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЕ СОФИЗМЫ
CONTENTS
Part I. Sophisms of Protection—First Series.
Part II. Sophisms of Protection—Second Series.
Part III. Spoliation and Law.
Part IV. Capital and Interest.
Фредерик Бастиа
ЗАКОН
CONTENTS
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
ECONOMIC SOPHISMS. FIRST SERIES.
INTRODUCTION.
I. ABUNDANCE, SCARCITY.
II. OBSTACLE, CAUSE.
III. EFFORT, RESULT.
IV. TO EQUALIZE THE CONDITIONS OF PRODUCTION.
V. OUR PRODUCTS ARE BURDENED WITH TAXES.
VI. BALANCE OF TRADE.
VII. OF THE MANUFACTURERS
VIII. DIFFERENTIAL DUTIES.
IX. IMMENSE DISCOVERY.
X. RECIPROCITY.
XI. NOMINAL PRICES.
XII. DOES PROTECTION RAISE THE RATE OF WAGES?
XIII. THEORY, PRACTICE.
XIV. CONFLICT OF PRINCIPLES.
XV. RECIPROCITY AGAIN.
XVI. OBSTRUCTED NAVIGATION PLEADING FOR THE PROHIBITIONISTS.
XVII. A NEGATIVE RAILWAY.
XVIII. THERE ARE NO ABSOLUTE PRINCIPLES.
XIX. NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE.
XX. HUMAN LABOUR, NATIONAL LABOUR.
XXI. RAW MATERIALS.
XXII. METAPHORS.
CONCLUSION.
SECOND SERIES.
I. PHYSIOLOGY OF SPOLIATION.
II. TWO PRINCIPLES OF MORALITY.
III. THE TWO HATCHETS.
IV. LOWER COUNCIL OF LABOUR.
V. DEARNESS-CHEAPNESS.
VI. TO ARTISANS AND WORKMEN.
VII. A CHINESE STORY.
VIII. POST HOC, ERGO PROPTER HOC.
IX. THE PREMIUM THEFT.
X. THE TAXGATHERER.
XI. THE UTOPIAN FREE-TRADER.
XII. THE SALT-TAX, RATES OF POSTAGE, AND CUSTOMHOUSE DUTIES.
XIII. PROTECTION; OR, THE THREE CITY MAGISTRATES. Demonstration in Four
XIV. SOMETHING ELSE.
XV. THE LITTLE ARSENAL OF THE FREE-TRADER.
XVI. THE RIGHT HAND AND THE LEFT.
XVII. DOMINATION BY LABOUR.
Фредерик Бастиа
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ
ЗАКОН
СНОСКИ:
УКАЗАТЕЛЬ
УКАЗАТЕЛЬ
ПРОТЕКЦИОНИЗМ и КОММУНИЗМ
Фредерик Бастиа
ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКИЕ ГАРМОНИИ
Фредерик Бастиа
CONTENTS
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
PROTECTION AND COMMUNISM.
УКАЗАТЕЛЬ
A.
CONTENTS
Page
Notice of the Life and Writings of Frédéric Bastiat,
9
To the Youth of France,
33
Chapter I.
Natural and Artificial Organization,
47
II.
Wants, Efforts, Satisfactions,
63
III.
Wants of Man,
75
IV.
Exchange,
97
V.
Of Value,
131
VI.
Wealth,
180
VII.
Capital,
196
VIII.
Property-Community,
218
IX.
Landed Property,
249
X.
Competition,
288
XI.
Producer-Consumer,
323
XII.
The Two Aphorisms,
339
XIII.
Rent,
347
XIV.
Wages,
352
XV.
Saving,
393
XVI.
Population,
397
XVII.
Private and Public Services,
425
XVIII.
Disturbing Causes,
446
XIX.
War,
454
XX.
Responsibility,
465
XXI.
Solidarity,
488
XXII.
Social Motive Force,
495
XXIII.
Existence of Evil,
504
XXIV.
Perfectibility,
508
XXV.
Relations of Political Economy with Religion,
513
Index,
518
Накопление, обстоятельство, не имеющее значения в политической экономии, стр. 169, примечание.
Люди объединяются, руководствуясь личным интересом, там же.
B.
Air, Atmospheric, has utility without having value, 137;
but if pumped into a diving-bell, the service has value, 138.
Algeria, usual rate of interest in, said to be 10 per cent., 302.
Aphorisms, the Two, "Each for all, all for each"-"Each for himself, each by himself," 339-346.
Opposed to each other if we regard the motive, not so if we look to results, 339.
No incompatibility in this last view between individualism and association, 340.
Его ранняя дружба с М. Кальметом, там же.
Difficulties attending a state of isolation lead naturally to association, 341.
As regards labour and exchanges, the principle "Each for himself" must be predominant, 342.
By following the rule each for himself, individual efforts act in the direction of each for all, 343.
Icarian expedition proceeded on the principle of all for each, 344, note.
Principles of Socialism and Communism refuted, 343, 344.
All desire monopolies and privileges, even the working classes, at their own expense, 345, 346.
Оставляет торговлю как профессию, там же.
Barter, primitive form of exchange, direct or roundabout, 108.
When barter is effected by means of an intermediate commodity, it is called sale and purchase, 109.
Barter of two factors, 110.
Value resolves itself into a barter of services, 137.
Bastiat, Frédéric, his birth, parentage, and education, p. 9.
Его дружба с М. Кудруа, там же.
Begins the study of Political Economy, 10.
Они вместе изучают философию и политическую экономию, там же.
Бастиа публикует свою первую брошюру в 1834 году, там же.
Становится мировым судьей и членом Генерального совета, там же.
Takes part in the Revolution of 1830, 11.
Пишет «Фиск и виноградник» (Le Fisc et la Vigne), там же.
Публикует две другие брошюры в 1843 и 1844 годах, там же.
Visits Spain, Portugal, and England, 12.
Анекдот о необоснованной англофобии, там же.
Публикует «Кобден и Лига» (Cobden et la Ligue) в 1845 году, там же.
Приведено письмо г-ну Кобдену, там же.
Sends his first contribution to the Journal des Économistes, 13.
Приведено письмо М. Кальмету, там же.
Посещает Англию в 1845 году и знакомится с Кобденом, Брайтом и другими членами Лиги против хлебных законов, там же.
Named a corresponding member of the Institute, 14.
Поселяется в Париже, там же.
Visits Paris, and introduced to leading economists, 15.
Приведены письма Кобдену и Кудруа, там же.
Letter to M. Coudroy quoted, 15, 16.
Bastiat complains of the hatred to England then prevalent in France, 16.
Его образ жизни в Париже, там же.
His appearance, as described by M. de Molinari and M. Reybaud, 17.
Избран членом Законодательного собрания, там же.
Conducts the Libre-Échange newspaper, 18.
Его памфлеты против социалистов: «Собственность и закон» (Propriété et Loi), «Собственность и экспроприация» (Propriété et Spoliation), «Справедливость и братство» (Justice et Fraternité), «Капитал и рента» (Capital et Rente), «Бесплатность кредита» (Gratuité du Credit), «Протекционизм и коммунизм» (Protectionisme et Communisme) и др., опубликованные в 1848-49 гг., там же.
Publishes the Sophismes Économiques, great success of that work, and extract from it, 18, 19, 20, 21.
Delivers a course of lectures on Political Economy, 21.
Письмо М. Кудруа на те же темы, там же.
His daily occupations, 22.
C.
Publishes Baccalauréat et Socialisme, and Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas, in 1850, 23.
Extract from the latter, 24, 25.
Projects Harmonies Économiques, and letter to Mr Cobden on that subject quoted, 25.
Такие институты удовлетворяют естественное стремление к стабильности и неизменности, там же.
His health begins to give way, 26, 27.
His account of the reception of the Harmonies, 27.
Notice of that work, 27, 28, 29.
List of chapters intended to complete the second volume of the Harmonies, 30, note.
Goes to Italy on account of his health, 30.
His letter to M. Coudroy from Rome, 31.
His last illness and death, 31, 32.
Bell, Sir Charles, his work on the Hand quoted, 29, note.
Blanqui, his opinions on landed property quoted, 255.
Bonald, M. de, quoted, 152.
Brazil, usual rate of interest in, said to be 20 per cent., 302.
Buchanan, D., his opinions on landed property quoted, 252.
Buret, M., his false theory on the relations of capitalist and labourer, 384.
Butler, Bishop, his Sermons on Human Nature quoted, 478, note.
Byron, Lord, quoted, 32.
Благодаря увеличению капитала абсолютная доля продукта капиталиста возрастает, его относительная доля уменьшается, в то время как доля рабочего увеличивается как абсолютно, так и относительно, там же.
Cairnes, Professor, quoted, 18.
Caisses de Retraite, friendly accumulation societies to provide for old age, 372, note.
Ставки в Бразилии, Алжире, Испании, Италии, Германии, Франции, Англии и Голландии, там же.
To succeed must proceed from the working classes themselves, without Government support or interference, 373.
Future of the working classes, 374.
Calmètes, M., the early friend of Bastiat, 9.
Letter to, quoted, 14.
Candlemakers' Petition quoted, 19.
Capital et Rente, pamphlet by Bastiat against the Socialists, 22.
Capital, in the beginning formed very slowly, 197.
Consists of tools, materials, and provisions, 198.
The man who furnishes capital renders a service, and is paid for that service, 199, 200.
The man who accords delay renders a service, and hence the legitimacy of interest, 203, 204.
Principle which governs the returns for capital, 206-211.
Progress of mankind coincides with rapid accumulation of capital, 210.
Capital has in itself a power of progression, 211.
Increase of capital is followed by increase of general prosperity, 212.
Ложные теории за рубежом, там же.
Illustrations of this, 213-216.
Progress of civilisation tends to lower rate of interest, 302.
Благодаря М. де Сисмонди и М. Бюре, там же.
Relations of capitalist and labourer, 383.
Erroneous notions on this subject most dangerous, 384.
Когда происходит обмен между капиталом, или прошлым трудом, и настоящим трудом, он осуществляется не на основе их продолжительности или интенсивности, а на основе их стоимости, 387.
Неправильно понято социалистами, там же.
Labourer's share of product has a tendency to increase as capital increases, 385.
Стоимость уменьшается благодаря сотрудничеству естественных сил, не сама по себе, а под давлением конкуренции, 291, 292.
Anterior labour has a general tendency to become depreciated, 388, 389.
Presence of capital always beneficial to labourer, 390.
Groundless outcry against tyranny of capital, 391, 392.
Carey, Mr, his theory of rent referred to, 274, note by Translator.
Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas, or Political Economy in one Lesson, pamphlet by Bastiat, quoted, 24.
Referred to, 478, note.
Châteaubriand, represents civilisation and corruption of morals as marching abreast, 511, 512.
His Mémoires d'Outre Tombe quoted, 512.
Civil law terms explained, 172, and note.
Cobden, Mr, letter from, on the subject of Bastiat's merits as an economist and writer, 4.
Triumph of free trade due to him rather than to Sir Robert Peel, 374.
His efforts for the suppression of war, 375.
Communists, their erroneous views of landed property controverted, 155.
Competition, no organization or form of association can be substituted for, 288.
Implies freedom from all constraint, 289.
Levels all factitious inequalities, 290.
В отсутствие конкуренции общество было бы устроено на принципе всеобщей монополии, там же.
Преимущества от изобретений, или от местного положения, климата и т. д., быстро ускользают из рук производителей и идут на увеличение благ потребителей, 333, 334.
Влияние изобретений и открытий на интересы потребителей и производителей представлено диаграммами, 331, 332.
Competition enables one country to participate in the natural advantages of another, 293.
Examples of this, 294, 299.
Inventions and discoveries become, through competition, the common and gratuitous patrimony of all, 299.
Mode in which this takes place, 300, 301.
Competition among capitalists reduces the price of commodities, 301, 302.
Progress of civilisation tends to lower the rate of interest, and this effected by competition, 302.
If wages are sometimes reduced by competition, the labourers, as consumers, profit by it, 303-307.
Competition tends to render services proportional to efforts, 306.
Laws of modern society too often cramp competition, 309, 310.
Competition essential to progress, and allied with human perfectibility, 313.
It approximates ranks, fortunes, and intelligence, 316.
Преимущества от изобретений, или от местного положения, климата и т. д., быстро ускользают из рук производителей и идут на увеличение благ потребителей, 333, 334.
Same thing holds of disadvantages, 334.
Condillac quoted, 114, 107.
Considérant, M., his work on Socialism quoted, 62, note.
His opinions on landed property, 257-260.
Consumer, every man may in turn be both producer and consumer, 324, 325.
The wishes and desires of consumers are those which are in harmony with the public interest, 325.
Consumers and producers should be left free to take care of their own interests, 326.
Все великие экономические эффекты должны рассматриваться с точки зрения потребителя, там же.
Производитель смотрит только на стоимость, там же.
Same thing holds of disadvantages, 334.
Потребитель представляет общество, там же.
Subordination of producer's interests to those of consumer confirmed when viewed in connexion with morals, 335.
Consumer is alone responsible for morality or utility of production, 338.
D.
Стоимость случайно найденного и обмененного предмета возникает не из усилий человека, который оказывает услугу, а из усилий, сэкономленных тем, кто ее получает, 141, 142.
Consumption, a term employed to designate the enjoyment to which utility gives rise, 323.
General prosperity is measured by consumption, and not by labour, 325.
Consumption the great end of Political Economy, 338.
Coudroy, Felix, studies Philosophy and Political Economy along with Bastiat, 10.
Letter to, quoted, 15.
Another letter to, quoted, 26.
E.
Defoe, D., his Robinson Crusoe referred to, 101.
Illustration drawn from, 197.
Demand determines all in connexion with production, 335.
Diamond, has great value without appreciable utility, 139.
Применяя этот расчет к фактам, изложенным Моисеем, евреи, вошедшие в Египет, должны были удвоиться за 14 лет, там же.
This a new principle not to be found in the works of economists, 141.
Disturbing Causes. Political Economy sets out by assuming transactions to be free and voluntary, 446.
Liberty is harmony, 447.
Economists not optimists, 448, 449.
Errors of judgment one disturbing cause, 452, 453.
Division of Labour admits of being viewed in a more general light than hitherto, 105.
Dunoyer, M., his work Sur la Liberté du Travail referred to and commended, 92.
Социалисты, признавая индивидуальные страдания, отрицают социальные страдания, там же.
Economists differ from the Socialists at the starting-point, 35, 36.
Efforts. Wants, efforts, and satisfactions, 63-74.
Effort saved to the person who receives a service imparts value to the service rendered, 141, 142.
England, population of, doubles in 43 years, 404.
L'État, pamphlet by Bastiat defining the proper province of Government, 23.
Euler, his calculation of the period in which population doubles itself, 407.
Состоит в обмене услугами, там же.
Evil, Existence of. Science has been retarded by being called on to deny the existence of evil, 504.
На капитал, там же.
Their contradictions exposed, 504-507.
Exchange, impossible to conceive society as existing without, 97.
A phenomenon peculiar to man, 101.
Has two manifestations, union of forces, and separation of occupations, 104.
F.
Its influence on labour, 105.
Upon the co-operation of natural agents, 105.
Upon human powers and faculties, 107.
Замечательное средство обеспечения на случай болезни и старости, там же.
Progress of exchange, 108-111.
Primitive form of, barter, 108.
Barter direct and roundabout, 109.
Limits of exchange, 111.
An element in the problem of population which Malthus has neglected, 113.
Moral force of exchange, 116.
In consequence of exchange, our powers exceed our wants, ib.;
and the gain of each is the gain of all, 117.
Illusions to which exchange gives rise, 128-130.
Exchange imparts the idea of value, 135.
G.
Fénélon quoted, 77.
Final Causes, faith in, not unattended with danger to the mind of an inquirer, 397.
Fisc, le, et la Vigne, pamphlet written by Bastiat in 1840, 12.
Florez Estrada, his opinions on landed property quoted, 254.
Florian's Fables quoted, 135.
Force, Public, should be confined to ensuring justice, liberty, and security, 121, 122.
France, youth of, address to, 33.
Usual rate of interest in, said to be 4 per cent., 302.
Population of, doubles in 138 years, 401.
Friendly Societies, have conferred immense benefits on the working classes, 368.
H.
Liberty and non-interference of Government essential to ensure their success, 369.
This secures reciprocal surveillance, 369-373.
Marked success of these societies in England, 370-373.
This due to the non-interference of Government, 371.
I.
Garnier, M. Joseph, his opinions on landed property quoted, 256.
Germany, usual rate of interest in said to be 5 per cent., 302.
Population of, doubles in 76 years, 404.
Girardin, M. Saint-Marc, quoted as to the influence of employments on the condition of nations, 455.
Gratuité du Credit, pamphlet by Bastiat against Proudhon's doctrine, in 1850, 22.
J.
Habit, force of, as changing man's wants, an essential element to be taken into account, 84.
Transforms desire into want, 85.
Harmonies Économiques projected, and letters to Mr Cobden and M. Coudroy on that subject quoted, 25.
Bastiat's account of the reception of that work, 27.
Notice of the Harmonies, 27, 28, 29.
List of chapters intended to complete 2d vol. of, 30, note.
Holland, usual rate of interest in, said to be under 3 per cent., 302.
Population of, doubles in 100 years, 404.
K.
Icarie, voyage en, Socialist work referred to, 205.