Transcriber’s note:
Эта книга была опубликована в двух томах, из которых этот является первым. Второй том был выпущен как электронная книга Project Gutenberg № 40473, доступная по адресу http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/40473
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Цифры, заключенные в квадратные скобки, например [1], относятся к сноскам, которые были помещены в конце текста. Цифры, заключенные в круглые скобки, например (1), относятся к работам, на которые есть ссылки в тексте и которые перечислены в конце тома II.
ИСТОРИЯ ТВОРЕНИЯ.
Развитие известковой губки (Олинтус)
ИСТОРИЯ ТВОРЕНИЯ: ИЛИ РАЗВИТИЕ ЗЕМЛИ И ЕЕ ОБИТАТЕЛЕЙ ПОД ДЕЙСТВИЕМ ЕСТЕСТВЕННЫХ ПРИЧИН
ПОПУЛЯРНОЕ ИЗЛОЖЕНИЕ УЧЕНИЯ ОБ ЭВОЛЮЦИИ В ЦЕЛОМ И УЧЕНИЙ ДАРВИНА, ГЁТЕ И ЛАМАРКА В ЧАСТНОСТИ.
ПЕРЕВОД С НЕМЕЦКОГО ЭРНСТА ГЕККЕЛЯ, ПРОФЕССОРА ЙЕНСКОГО УНИВЕРСИТЕТА.
ПЕРЕВОД ПЕРЕСМОТРЕН Э. РЭЕМ ЛАНКЕСТЕРОМ, МАГИСТРОМ ИСКУССТВ, ЧЛЕНОМ ЭКСЕТЕР-КОЛЛЕДЖА, ОКСФОРД.
В ДВУХ ТОМАХ. ТОМ I.
НЬЮ-ЙОРК: Д. ЭППЛТОН И КОМПАНИЯ, 1, 3 И 5 БОНД-СТРИТ. 1880.
A sense sublime Of something far more deeply interfused, Whose dwelling is the light of setting suns, And the round ocean, and the living air, And the blue sky, and in the mind of man; A motion and a spirit that impels All thinking things, all objects of all thought, And rolls through all things.
In all things, in all natures, in the stars Of azure heaven, the unenduring clouds, In flower and tree, in every pebbly stone That paves the brooks, the stationary rocks, The moving waters and the invisible air. Wordsworth.
СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ТОМА I.
CHAPTER I.
NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF THE DOCTRINE OF FILIATION, OR DESCENT-THEORY.
PAGE
General Importance and Essential Nature of the Theory of Descent as reformed by Darwin.—Its Special Importance to Biology (Zoology and Botany).—Its Special Importance to the History of the Natural Development of the Human Race.—The Theory of Descent as the Non-Miraculous History of Creation.—Idea of Creation.—Knowledge and Belief.—History of Creation and History of Development.—The Connection between the History of Individual and Palæontological Development.—The Theory of Purposelessness, or the Science of Rudimentary Organs.—Useless and Superfluous Arrangements in Organisms.—Contrast between the two entirely Opposed Views of Nature: the Monistic (mechanical, causal) and the Dualistic (teleological, vital).—Proof of the former by the Theory of Descent.—Unity of Organic and Inorganic Nature, and the Identity of the Active Causes in both.—The Importance of the Theory of Descent to the Monistic Conception of all Nature. 1
CHAPTER II.
SCIENTIFIC JUSTIFICATION OF THE THEORY OF DESCENT. HISTORY OF CREATION ACCORDING TO LINNÆUS.
The Theory of Descent, or Doctrine of Filiation, as the Monistic Explanation of Organic Natural Phenomena.—Its Comparison with Newton’s Theory of Gravitation.—Limits of Scientific Explanation and of Human Knowledge in general.—All Knowledge founded originally on Sensuous Experience, à posteriori.—Transition of à posteriori knowledge, by inheritance, into à priori knowledge.—Contrast
between the Supernatural Hypotheses of the Creation according to Linnæus, Cuvier, Agassiz, and the Natural Theories of Development according to Lamarck, Goethe, and Darwin.—Connection of the former with the Monistic (mechanical), of the latter with the Dualistic Conception of the Universe.—Monism and Materialism.—Scientific and Moral Materialism.—The History of Creation according to Moses.—Linnæus as the Founder of the Systematic Description of Nature and Distinction of Species.—Linnæus’ Classification and Binary Nomenclature.—Meaning of Linnæus’ Idea of Species.—His History of Creation.—Linnæus’ view of the Origin of Species 24
CHAPTER III.
THE HISTORY OF CREATION ACCORDING TO CUVIER AND AGASSIZ.
General Theoretical Meaning of the Idea of Species.—Distinction between the Theoretical and Practical Definition of the Idea of Species.—Cuvier’s Definition of Species.—Merits of Cuvier as the Founder of Comparative Anatomy.—Distinction of the Four Principal Forms (types or branches) of the Animal Kingdom, by Cuvier and Bär.—Cuvier’s Services to Palæontology.—His Hypothesis of the Revolutions of our Globe, and the Epochs of Creation separated by them.—Unknown Supernatural Causes of the Revolutions, and the subsequent New Creations.—Agassiz’s Teleological System of Nature.—His Conception of the Plan of Creation, and its six Categories (groups in classification).—Agassiz’s Views of the Creation of Species.—Rude Conception of the Creator as a man-like being in Agassiz’s Hypothesis of Creation.—Its internal Inconsistency and Contradictions with the important Palæontological Laws discovered by Agassiz 47
CHAPTER IV.
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO GOETHE AND OKEN.
Scientific Insufficiency of all Conceptions of a Creation of Individual Species.—Necessity of the Counter Theories of Development.—Historical Survey of the most Important Theories of Development.—Aristotle.—His Doctrine of Spontaneous Generation.—The Meaning of Nature-philosophy.—Goethe.—His Merits as a Naturalist.—His Metamorphosis of Plants.—His Vertebral Theory of the Skull.—His Discovery of the Mid Jawbone in Man.—Goethe’s
Interest in the Dispute between Cuvier and Geoffroy St. Hilaire.—Goethe’s Discovery of the two Organic Formative Principles, of the Conservative Principle of Specification (by Inheritance), and of the Progressive Principle of Transformation (by Adaptation).—Goethe’s Views of the Common Descent of all Vertebrate Animals, including Man.—Theory of Development according to Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus.—His Monistic Conception of Nature.—Oken.—His Nature-philosophy.—Oken’s Theory of Protoplasm—Oken’s Theory of Infusoria (Cell Theory).—Oken’s Theory of Development 72
CHAPTER V.
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO KANT AND LAMARCK.
Kant’s Dualistic Biology.—His Conception of the Origin of Inorganic Nature by Mechanical Causes, of Organic Nature by Causes acting for a Definite Purpose.—Contradiction of this Conception with his leaning towards the Theory of Descent.—Kant’s Genealogical Theory of Development.—Its Limitation by his Teleology.—Comparison of Genealogical Biology with Comparative Philology.—Views in favour of the Theory of Descent entertained by Leopold Buch, Bär, Schleiden, Unger, Schaafhausen, Victor Carus, Büchner.—French Nature-philosophy.—Lamarck’s Philosophic Zoologique.—Lamarck’s Monistic (mechanical) System of Nature.—His Views of the Interaction of the two Organic Formative Tendencies of Inheritance and Adaptation.—Lamarck’s Conception of Man’s Development from Ape-like Mammals.—Geoffroy St. Hilaire’s , Naudin’s , and Lecoq’s Defence of the Theory of Descent.—English Nature-philosophy.—Views in favour of the Theory of Descent entertained by Erasmus Darwin, W. Herbert, Grant, Freke, Herbert Spencer, Hooker, Huxley.—The Double Merit of Charles Darwin 100
CHAPTER VI.
THEORY OF DEVELOPMENT ACCORDING TO LYELL AND DARWIN.
Charles Lyell’s Principles of Geology.—His Natural History of the Earth’s Development.—Origin of the Greatest Effects through the Multiplication of the Smallest Causes.—Unlimited Extent of Geological Periods.—Lyell’s Refutation of Cuvier’s History of Creation.—The Establishment of the Uninterrupted Connection of Historical Development by Lyell and Darwin.—Biographical Notice of Charles
Darwin.—His Scientific Works.—His Theory of Coral Reefs.—Development of the Theory of Selection.—A Letter of Darwin’s .—The Contemporaneous Appearance of Darwin’s and Alfred Wallace’s Theory of Selection.—Darwin’s Study of Domestic Animals and Cultivated Plants.—Andreas Wagner’s Notions as to the Special Creation of Cultivated Organisms for the good of Man.—The Tree of Knowledge in Paradise.—Comparison between Wild and Cultivated Organisms.—Darwin’s Study of Domestic Pigeons.—Importance of Pigeon Breeding.—Common Descent of all Races of Pigeons 125
CHAPTER VII.
THE THEORY OF SELECTION (DARWINISM).
Darwinism (Theory of Selection) and Lamarckism (Theory of Descent).—The Process of Artificial Breeding.—Selection of the Different Individuals for After-breeding.—The Active Causes of Transmutation.—Change connected with Food and Transmission by Inheritance connected with Propagation.—Mechanical Nature of these Two Physiological Functions.—The Process of Natural Breeding: Selection in the Struggle for Existence.—Malthus’ Theory of Population.—The Proportion between the Numbers of Potential and Actual Individuals of every Species of Organisms.—General Struggle for Existence, or Competition to attain the Necessaries of Life.—Transforming Force of the Struggle for Existence.—Comparison of Natural and Artificial Breeding.—Selection in the Life of Man.—Military and Medical Selection 149
CHAPTER VIII.
TRANSMISSION BY INHERITANCE AND PROPAGATION.
Universality of Inheritance and Transmission by Inheritance.—Special Evidences of the same.—Human Beings with four, six, or seven Fingers and Toes.—Porcupine Men.—Transmission of Diseases, especially Diseases of the Mind.—Original Sin.—Hereditary Monarchies.—Hereditary Aristocracy.—Hereditary Talents and Mental Qualities.—Material Causes of Transmission by Inheritance.—Connection between Transmission by Inheritance and Propagation.—Spontaneous Generation and Propagation.—Non-sexual or Monogonous Propagation.—Propagation by Self-Division.—Monera and Amœba.—Propagation by the formation of Buds, by the formation of Germ-Buds, by the formation of Germ-Cells.—Sexual or Amphigonous Propagation.—Formation of Hermaphrodites.—Distinction
of Sexes, or Gonochorism.—Virginal Breeding, or Parthenogenesis.—Material Transmission of Peculiarities of both Parents to the Child by Sexual Propagation.—Difference between Transmission by Inheritance in Sexual and in Asexual Propagation 175
CHAPTER IX.
LAWS OF TRANSMISSION BY INHERITANCE. ADAPTATION AND NUTRITION.
Distinction between Conservative and Progressive Transmission by Inheritance.—Laws of Conservative Transmission: Transmission of Inherited Characters.—Uninterrupted or Continuous Transmission.—Interrupted or Latent Transmission.—Alternation of Generations.—Relapse.—Degeneracy.—Sexual Transmission.—Secondary Sexual Characters.—Mixed or Amphigonous Transmission.—Hybrids.—Abridged or Simplified Transmission.—Laws of Progressive Inheritance: Transmission of Acquired Characters.—Adapted or Acquired Transmission.—Fixed or Established Transmission.—Homochronous Transmission (Identity in Epoch).—Homotopic Transmission (Identity in Part).—Adaptation and Mutability.—Connection between Adaptation and Nutrition.—Distinction between Indirect and Direct Adaptation 203
CHAPTER X.
LAWS OF ADAPTATION.
Laws of Indirect or Potential Adaptation.—Individual Adaptation.—Monstrous or Sudden Adaptation.—Sexual Adaptation.—Laws of Direct or Actual Adaptation.—Universal Adaptation.—Cumulative Adaptation.—Cumulative Influence of External Conditions of Existence and Cumulative Counter-Influence of the Organism.—Free Will.—Use and Non-use of Organs.—Practice and Habit.—Correlative Adaptation.—Correlation of Development.—Correlation of Organs.—Explanation of Indirect or Potential Adaptation by the Correlation of the Sexual Organs and of the other parts of the Body.—Divergent Adaptation.—Unlimited or Infinite Adaptation 227
CHAPTER XI.
NATURAL SELECTION BY THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE. DIVISION OF LABOUR AND PROGRESS.
Interaction of the two Organic Formative Causes, Inheritance and Adaptation.—Natural and Artificial Selection.—Struggle for Existence,
or Competition for the Necessaries of Life.—Disproportion between the Number of Possible or Potential, and the Number of Real or Actual Individuals.—Complicated Correlations of all Neighbouring Organisms.—Mode of Action in Natural Selection.—Homochromic Selection as the Cause of Sympathetic Colourings.—Sexual Selection as the Cause of the Secondary Sexual Characters.—Law of Separation or Division of Labour (Polymorphism, Differentiation, Divergence of Characters).—Transition of Varieties into Species.—Idea of Species.—Hybridism.—Law of Progress or Perfecting (Progresses, Teleosis) 252
CHAPTER XII.
LAWS OF DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANIC TRIBES AND OF INDIVIDUALS. PHYLOGENY AND ONTOGENY.
Laws of the Development of Mankind: Differentiation and Perfecting.—Mechanical Cause of these two Fundamental Laws.—Progress without Differentiation, and Differentiation without Progress.—Origin of Rudimentary Organs by Non-use and Discontinuance of Habit.—Ontogenesis, or Individual Development of Organisms.—Its General Importance.—Ontogeny, or the Individual History of Development of Vertebrate Animals, including Man.—The Fructification of the Egg.—Formation of the Three Germ Layers.—History of the Development of the Central Nervous System, of the Extremities, of the Branchial Arches, and of the Tail of Vertebrate Animals.—Causal Connection and Parallelism of Ontogenesis and Phylogenesis, that is, of the Development of Individuals and Tribes.—Causal Connection of the Parallelism of Phylogenesis and of Systematic Development.—Parallelism of the three Organic Series of Development 280
CHAPTER XIII.
THEORY OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE UNIVERSE AND OF THE EARTH. SPONTANEOUS GENERATION. THE CARBON THEORY. THE PLASTID THEORY.
History of the Development of the Earth.—Kant’s Theory of the Development of the Universe, or the Cosmological Gas Theory.—Development of Suns, Planets, and Moons.—First Origin of Water.—Comparison of Organisms and Anorgana.—Organic and Inorganic Substances.—Degrees of Density, or Conditions of Aggregation.—Albuminous Combinations of Carbon.—Organic and Inorganic
Forms.—Crystals and Formless Organisms without Organs.Stereometrical Fundamental Forms of Crystals and of Organisms.—Organic and Inorganic Forces.—Vital Force.—Growth and Adaptation in Crystals and in Organisms.—Formative Tendencies of Crystals.—Unity of Organic and Inorganic Nature.—Spontaneous Generation, or Archigony.—Autogony and Plasmogony.—Origin of Monera by Spontaneous Generation.—Origin of Cells from Monera.—The Cell Theory.—The Plastid Theory.—Plastids, or Structural-Units.—Cytods and Cells.—Four Different Kinds of Plastids 316
CHAPTER XIV.
MIGRATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF ORGANISMS. CHOROLOGY AND THE ICE-PERIOD OF THE EARTH.
Chorological Facts and Causes.—Origin of most Species in one Single Locality.—“Centres of Creation.”—Distribution by Migration.—Active and Passive Migrations of Animals and Plants.—Means of Transport.—Transport of Germs by Water and by Wind.—Continual Change of the Area of Distribution by Elevations and Depressions of the Ground.—Chorological Importance of Geological Processes.—Influence of the Change of Climate.—Ice or Glacial Period.—Its Importance to Chorology.—Importance of Migrations for the Origin of New Species.—Isolation of Colonists.—Wagner’s Law of Migration.—Connection between the Theory of Migration and the Theory of Selection.—Agreement of its Results with the Theory of Descent 350
СПИСОК ИЛЛЮСТРАЦИЙ.
ТАБЛИЦЫ.
PAGE
Development of a Calcareous Sponge (Olynthus) Frontispiece
I.—Life History of a Simplest Organism To face page 184
II., III.—Germs or Embryos of Four Vertebrates " 306
РИСУНКИ.
1.—Propagation of Moneron 186
2.—Propagation of Amœba 188
3.—Egg of Mammal 189
4.—First Development of Mammal’s Egg 190
5.—The Human Egg Enlarged 297
6.—Development of Mammal’s Egg 299
7.—Embryo of a Mammal or Bird 304
ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ АВТОРА К АНГЛИЙСКОМУ ИЗДАНИЮ.
Я желаю предпослать английскому изданию «Истории творения» несколько замечаний, которые могут послужить для объяснения происхождения и цели этой книги. В 1866 году я опубликовал под заглавием «Generelle Morphologie» («Всеобщая морфология») довольно обширный труд, который представлял собой первую попытку применить общее учение о развитии ко всей области органической морфологии (анатомии и биогенеза) и, таким образом, использовать тот огромный шаг вперед, который гений Чарльза Дарвина совершил во всей биологической науке благодаря реформе теории происхождения видов и ее обоснованию через учение об отборе. В то же время в «Всеобщей морфологии» была предпринята первая попытка внедрить теорию происхождения видов в систематическую классификацию животных и растений и основать «естественную систему» на базе генеалогии; то есть построить гипотетические родословные для различных видов организмов.
«Всеобщая морфология» нашла лишь немногих читателей, в чем, возможно, главным образом виноваты объемный и непопулярный стиль изложения, а также слишком обширная греческая терминология. Но «Natürliche Schöpfungsgeschichte» («Естественная история творения») встретила в Германии пропорционально большую меру одобрения. Эта книга возникла из стенографических записей курса лекций, в которых перед смешанной аудиторией и в популярной форме рассматривались наиболее важные темы, обсуждавшиеся в «Всеобщей морфологии». Записи были впоследствии переработаны и получили значительные дополнения. Книга впервые вышла в 1868 году, ее четвертое издание — в 1873 году, и она была переведена на несколько языков. Я надеюсь, что она найдет сочувствие и на родине Дарвина, тем более что она содержит особые морфологические доказательства в пользу многих важных учений, которыми этот величайший натуралист нашего века обогатил науку. Как бы Англия ни гордилась тем, что ее называют родиной Ньютона, который своим законом тяготения подчинил неорганическую природу действию естественных законов причины и следствия, она может с еще большей гордостью причислить к своим сыновьям Чарльза Дарвина — того, кто решил еще более трудную задачу подчинения сложных явлений органической природы действию тех же естественных законов.
Упрек, который сейчас чаще всего предъявляют теории происхождения видов, заключается в том, что она недостаточно надежно обоснована, недостаточно доказана. Не только ее явные противники утверждают, что существует недостаток удовлетворительных доказательств, но даже малодушные и колеблющиеся сторонники заявляют, что гипотезе Дарвина все еще не хватает фундаментального доказательства. Ни те, ни другие не оценивают по достоинству неизмеримый вес, который огромный ряд явлений сравнительной анатомии и онтогенеза, палеонтологии и таксономии, хорологии и экологии бросает на чашу весов в пользу учения о филогенезе. Теория отбора Дарвина, которая полностью объясняет происхождение видов через комбинированное действие наследственности и изменчивости в борьбе за существование, также кажется этим лицам недостаточной. Они требуют, сверх того, чтобы происхождение видов от общих предковых форм было доказано в конкретном случае; чтобы, в противоположность синтетическим доказательствам, приводимым в пользу теории происхождения видов, было представлено аналитическое доказательство генеалогической непрерывности отдельных видов.