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ОГЛАВЛЕНИЯ ТОМОВ

THE CONTEST IN AMERICA

##  CONSIDERATIONS ON REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT

##  AUTOBIOGRAPHY

##  UTILITARIANISM

##  SOME UNSETTLED QUESTIONS OF POLITICAL ECONOMY

AUGUST COMTE AND POSITIVISM

THE SUBJECTION OF WOMEN

##  PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL ECONOMY

ON LIBERTY

##  7th ED. VOL 1: A SYSTEM OF LOGIC RATIOCINATIVE AND INDUCTIVE

##  7th ED, Vol. II: A SYSTEM OF LOGIC RATIOCINATIVE AND INDUCTIVE

##  8th ED: A SYSTEM OF LOGIC RATIOCINATIVE AND INDUCTIVE

SOCIALISM

##  PHENOMENA OF THE HUMAN MIND

РАЗМЫШЛЕНИЯ О ПРЕДСТАВИТЕЛЬНОМ ПРАВЛЕНИИ

Джон Стюарт Милль

АВТОБИОГРАФИЯ

CONTENTS

Preface
Chapter I | To What Extent Forms of Government are a Matter of Choice.
Chapter II | The Criterion of a Good Form of Government.
Chapter III | That the ideally best Form of Government is Representative Government.
Chapter IV | Under what Social Conditions Representative Government is Inapplicable.
Chapter V | Of the Proper Functions of Representative Bodies.
Chapter VI | Of the Infirmities and Dangers to which Representative Government is Liable.
Chapter VII | Of True and False Democracy; Representation of All, and Representation of the Majority only.
Chapter VIII | Of the Extension of the Suffrage.
Chapter IX | Should there be Two Stages of Election?
Chapter X | Of the Mode of Voting.
Chapter XI | Of the Duration of Parliaments.
Chapter XII | Ought Pledges to be Required from Members of Parliament?
Chapter XIII | Of a Second Chamber.
Chapter XIV | Of the Executive in a Representative Government.
Chapter XV | Of Local Representative Bodies.
Chapter XVI | Of Nationality, as connected with Representative Government.
Chapter XVII | Of Federal Representative Governments.
Chapter XVIII | Of the Government of Dependencies by a Free State.
Footnotes

Джон Стюарт Милль

УТИЛИТАРИЗМ

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I | 1806-1819 — CHILDHOOD AND EARLY EDUCATION
CHAPTER II | 1813-1821 — MORAL INFLUENCES IN EARLY YOUTH — MY FATHER'S CHARACTER AND OPINIONS
CHAPTER III | 1821-1823 — LAST STAGE OF EDUCATION, AND FIRST OF SELF-EDUCATION
CHAPTER IV | 1823-1828 — YOUTHFUL PROPAGANDISM. THE "WESTMINSTER REVIEW"
CHAPTER V | 1826-1832 — CRISIS IN MY MENTAL HISTORY. ONE STAGE ONWARD
CHAPTER VI. | 1830-1840 — COMMENCEMENT OF THE MOST VALUABLE FRIENDSHIP OF MY LIFE—MY FATHER'S DEATH—WRITINGS AND OTHER PROCEEDINGS UP TO 1840

CHAPTER VII.
1840-1870 — GENERAL VIEW OF THE REMAINDER OF MY LIFE.—COMPLETION OF THE "SYSTEM OF LOGIC"—PUBLICATION OF THE "PRINCIPLES OF POLITICAL ECONOMY" —MARRIAGE—RETIREMENT FROM THE INDIA HOUSE—PUBLICATION OF "LIBERTY" —"CONSIDERATIONS ON REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT"—CIVIL WAR IN AMERICA —EXAMINATION OF SIR WILLIAM HAMILTON'S PHILOSOPHY—PARLIAMENTARY LIFE —REMAINDER OF MY LIFE

NOTES:

Джон Стюарт Милль

ЭССЕ О НЕКОТОРЫХ НЕРАЗРЕШЕННЫХ ВОПРОСАХ ПОЛИТИЧЕСКОЙ ЭКОНОМИИ

CONTENTS

CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I | GENERAL REMARKS
CHAPTER II | WHAT UTILITARIANISM IS
CHAPTER III | OF THE ULTIMATE SANCTION OF THE PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY
CHAPTER IV | OF WHAT SORT OF PROOF THE PRINCIPLE OF UTILITY IS SUSCEPTIBLE
CHAPTER V | OF THE CONNEXION BETWEEN JUSTICE AND UTILITY

Джон Стюарт Милль

ПРИНЦИПЫ ПОЛИТИЧЕСКОЙ ЭКОНОМИИ

CONTENTS

PREFACE. |
CONTENTS. |
ESSAY I. | Of the Laws of Interchange between Nations; and the Distribution of the Gains of Commerce among the Countries of the Commercial World
ESSAY II. | Of the Influence of Consumption upon Production
ESSAY III. | On the Words Productive and Unproductive
ESSAY IV. | On Profits, and Interest
ESSAY V. | On the Definition of Political Economy; and on the Method of Investigation proper to it

Джон Стюарт Милль

СИСТЕМА ЛОГИКИ, СИЛЛОГИСТИЧЕСКОЙ И ИНДУКТИВНОЙ — ТОМ I.

Contents

Preface.

Introductory.

A Sketch Of The History Of Political Economy.

Books For Consultation (From English, French, And German Authors).

Preliminary Remarks.

Book I. Production.

Chapter I. Of The Requisites Of Production.

§ 1. The requisites of production.

§ 2. The Second Requisite of Production, Labor.

§ 3. Of Capital as a Requisite of Production.

Chapter II. Of Unproductive Labor.

§ 1. Definition of Productive and Unproductive Labor.

§ 2. Productive and Unproductive Consumption.

§ 3. Distinction Between Labor for the Supply of Productive Consumption and Labor for the Supply of Unproductive Consumption.

Chapter III. Of Capital.

§ 1. Capital is Wealth Appropriated to Reproductive Employment.

§ 2. More Capital Devoted to Production than Actually Employed in it.

§ 3. Examination of Cases Illustrative of the Idea of Capital.

Chapter IV. Fundamental Propositions Respecting Capital.

§ 1. Industry is Limited by Capital.

§ 2. Increase of Capital gives Increased Employment to Labor, Without Assignable Bounds.

§ 3. Capital is the result of Saving, and all Capital is Consumed.

§ 4. Capital is kept up by Perpetual Reproduction, as shown by the Recovery of Countries from Devastation.

§ 5. Effects of Defraying Government Expenditure by Loans.

§ 6. Demand for Commodities is not Demand for Labor.

Chapter V. On Circulating And Fixed Capital.

§ 1. Fixed and Circulating Capital.

§ 2. Increase of Fixed Capital, when, at the Expense of Circulating, might be Detrimental to the Laborers.

§ 3. -This seldom, if ever, occurs.

Chapter VI. Of Causes Affecting The Efficiency Of Production.

§ 1. General Causes of Superior Productiveness.

§ 2. Combination and Division of Labor Increase Productiveness.

§ 3. Advantages of Division of Labor.

§ 4. Production on a Large and Production on a Small Scale.

Chapter VII. Of The Law Of The Increase Of Labor.

§ 1. The Law of the Increase of Production Depends on those of Three Elements-Labor. Capital, and Land.

§ 2. The Law of Population.

§ 3. By what Checks the Increase of Population is Practically Limited.

Chapter VIII. Of The Law Of The Increase Of Capital.

§ 1. Means for Saving in the Surplus above Necessaries.

§ 2. Motive for Saving in the Surplus above Necessaries.

§ 3. Examples of Deficiency in the Strength of this Desire.

§ 4. Examples of Excess of this Desire.

Chapter IX. Of The Law Of The Increase Of Production From Land.

§ 1. The Law of Production from the Soil, a Law of Diminishing Return in Proportion to the Increased Application of Labor and Capital.

§ 2. Antagonist Principle to the Law of Diminishing Return; the Progress of Improvements in Production.

§ 3. -In Railways.

§ 4. -In Manufactures.

§ 5. Law Holds True of Mining.

Chapter X. Consequences Of The Foregoing Laws.

§ 1. Remedies for Weakness of the Principle of Accumulation.

§ 2. Even where the Desire to Accumulate is Strong, Population must be Kept within the Limits of Population from Land.

§ 3. Necessity of Restraining Population not superseded by Free Trade in Food.

§ 4. -Nor by Emigration.

Book II. Distribution.

Chapter I. Of Property.

§ 1. Individual Property and its opponents.

§ 2. The case for Communism against private property presented.

§ 3. The Socialists who appeal to state-help.

§ 4. Of various minor schemes, Communistic and Socialistic.

§ 5. The Socialist objections to the present order of Society examined.

§ 6. Property in land different from property in Movables.

Chapter II. Of Wages.

§ 1. Of Competition and Custom.

§ 2. The Wages-fund, and the Objections to it Considered.

§ 3. Examination of some popular Opinions respecting Wages.

§ 4. Certain rare Circumstances excepted, High Wages imply Restraints on Population.

§ 5. Due Restriction of Population the only Safeguard of a Laboring-Class.

Chapter III. Of Remedies For Low Wages.

§ 1. A Legal or Customary Minimum of Wages, with a Guarantee of Employment.

§ 2. -Would Require as a Condition Legal Measures for Repression of Population.

§ 3. Allowances in Aid of Wages and the Standard of Living.

§ 4. Grounds for Expecting Improvement in Public Opinion on the Subject of Population.

§ 5. Twofold means of Elevating the Habits of the Laboring-People; by Education, and by Foreign and Home Colonization.

Chapter IV. Of The Differences Of Wages In Different Employments.

§ 1. Differences of Wages Arising from Different Degrees of Attractiveness in Different Employments.

§ 2. Differences arising from Natural Monopolies.

§ 3. Effect on Wages of the Competition of Persons having other Means of Support.

§ 4. Wages of Women, why Lower than those of Men.

§ 5. Differences of Wages Arising from Laws, Combinations, or Customs.

Chapter V. Of Profits.

§ 1. Profits include Interest and Risk; but, correctly speaking, do not include Wages of Superintendence.

§ 2. The Minimum of Profits; what produces Variations in the Amount of Profits.

§ 3. General Tendency of Profits to an Equality.

§ 4. The Cause of the Existence of any Profit; the Advances of Capitalists consist of Wages of Labor.

§ 5. The Rate of Profit depends on the Cost of Labor.

Chapter VI. Of Rent.

§ 1. Rent the Effect of a Natural Monopoly.

§ 2. No Land can pay Rent except Land of such Quality or Situation as exists in less Quantity than the Demand.

§ 3. The Rent of Land is the Excess of its Return above the Return to the worst Land in Cultivation.

§ 4. -Or to the Capital employed in the least advantageous Circumstances.

§ 5. Opposing Views of the Law of Rent.

§ 6. Rent does not enter into the Cost of Production of Agricultural Produce.

Book III. Exchange.

Chapter I. Of Value.

§ 1. Definitions of Value in Use, Exchange Value, and Price.

§ 2. Conditions of Value: Utility, Difficulty of Attainment, and Transferableness.

§ 3. Commodities limited in Quantity by the law of Demand and Supply: General working of this Law.

§ 4. Miscellaneous Cases falling under this Law.

§ 5. Commodities which are Susceptible of Indefinite Multiplication without Increase of Cost. Law of their Value Cost of Production.

§ 6. The Value of these Commodities confirm, in the long run, to their Cost of Production through the operation of Demand and Supply.

Chapter II. Ultimate Analysis Of Cost Of Production.

§ 1. Of Labor, the principal Element in Cost of Production.

§ 2. Wages affect Values, only if different in different employments; "non-competing groups."

§ 3. Profits an element in Cost of Production.

§ 4. Cost of Production properly represented by sacrifice, or cost, to the Laborer as well as to the Capitalist; the relation of this conception to the Cost of Labor.

§ 5. When profits vary from Employment to Employment, or are spread over unequal lengths of Time, they affect Values accordingly.

§ 6. Occasional Elements in Cost of Production; taxes and ground-rent.

Chapter III. Of Rent, In Its Relation To Value.

§ 1. Commodities which are susceptible of indefinite Multiplication, but not without increase of Cost. Law of their Value, Cost of Production in the most unfavorable existing circumstances.

§ 2. Such commodities, when Produced in circumstances more favorable, yield a Rent equal to the difference of Cost.

§ 3. Rent of Mines and Fisheries and ground-rent of Buildings, and cases of gain analogous to Rent.

§ 4. Résumé of the laws of value of each of the three classes of commodities.

Chapter IV. Of Money.

§ 1. The three functions of Money-a Common Denominator of Value, a Medium of Exchange, a "Standard of Value".

§ 2. Gold and Silver, why fitted for those purposes.

§ 3. Money a mere contrivance for facilitating exchanges, which does not affect the laws of value.

Chapter V. Of The Value Of Money, As Dependent On Demand And Supply.

§ 1. Value of Money, an ambiguous expression.

§ 2. The Value of Money depends on its quantity.

§ 3. -Together with the Rapidity of Circulation.

§ 4. Explanations and Limitations of this Principle.

Chapter VI. Of The Value Of Money, As Dependent On Cost Of Production.

§ 1. The value of Money, in a state of Freedom, conforms to the value of the Bullion contained in it.

§ 2. -Which is determined by the cost of production.

§ 3. This law, how related to the principle laid down in the preceding chapter.

Chapter VII. Of A Double Standard And Subsidiary Coins.

§ 1. Objections to a Double Standard.

§ 2. The use of the two metals as money, and the management of Subsidiary Coins.

§ 3. The experience of the United States with a double standard from 1792 to 1883.

Chapter VIII. Of Credit, As A Substitute For Money.

§ 1. Credit not a creation but a Transfer of the means of Production.

§ 2. In what manner it assists Production.

§ 3. Function of Credit in economizing the use of Money.

§ 4. Bills of Exchange.

§ 5. Promissory Notes.

§ 6. Deposits and Checks.

Chapter IX. Influence Of Credit On Prices.

§ 1. What acts on prices is Credit, in whatever shape given.

§ 2. Credit a purchasing Power, similar to Money.

§ 3. Great extensions and contractions of Credit. Phenomena of a commercial crisis analyzed.

§ 4. Influence of the different forms of Credit on Prices.

§ 5. On what the use of Credit depends.

§ 6. What is essential to the idea of Money?

Chapter X. Of An Inconvertible Paper Currency.

§ 1. What determines the value of an inconvertible paper money?

§ 2. If regulated by the price of Bullion, as inconvertible Currency might be safe, but not Expedient.

§ 3. Examination of the doctrine that an inconvertible Current is safe, if representing actual Property.

§ 4. Experiments with paper Money in the United States.

§ 5. Examination of the gain arising from the increase and issue of paper Currency.

§ 6. Résumé of the subject of money.

Chapter XI. Of Excess Of Supply.

§ 1. The theory of a general Over-Supply of Commodities stated.

§ 2. The supply of commodities in general can not exceed the power of Purchase.

§ 3. There can never be a lack of Demand arising from lack of Desire to Consume.

§ 4. Origin and Explanation of the notion of general Over-Supply.

Chapter XII. Of Some Peculiar Cases Of Value.

§ 1. Values of commodities which have a joint cost of production.

§ 2. Values of the different kinds of agricultural produce.

Chapter XIII. Of International Trade.

§ 1. Cost of Production not a regulator of international values. Extension of the word "international."

§ 2. Interchange of commodities between distance places determined by differences not in their absolute, but in the comparative, costs of production.

§ 3. The direct benefits of commerce consist in increased Efficiency of the productive powers of the World.

§ 4. -Not in a Vent for exports, nor in the gains of Merchants.

§ 5. Indirect benefits of Commerce, Economical and Moral; still greater than the Direct.

Chapter XIV. Of International Values.

§ 1. The values of imported commodities depend on the Terms of international interchange.

§ 2. The values of foreign commodities depend, not upon Cost of Production, but upon Reciprocal Demand and Supply.

§ 3. -As illustrated by trade in cloth and linen between England and Germany.

§ 4. The conclusion states in the Equation of International Demand.

§ 5. The cost to a country of its imports depends not only on the ratio of exchange, but on the efficiency of its labor.

Chapter XV. Of Money Considered As An Imported Commodity.

§ 1. Money imported on two modes; as a Commodity, and as a medium of Exchange.

§ 2. As a commodity, it obeys the same laws of Value as other imported Commodities.

Chapter XVI. Of The Foreign Exchanges.

§ 1. Money passes from country to country as a Medium of Exchange, through the Exchanges.

§ 2. Distinction between Variations in the Exchanges which are self-adjusting and those which can only be rectified through Prices.

Chapter XVII. Of The Distribution Of The Precious Metals Through The Commercial World.

§ 1. The substitution of money for barter makes no difference in exports and imports, nor in the Law of international Values.

§ 2. The preceding Theorem further illustrated.

§ 3. The precious metals, as money, are of the same Value, and distribute themselves according to the same Law, with the precious metals as a Commodity.

§ 4. International payments entering into the "financial account."

Chapter XVIII. Influence Of The Currency On The Exchanges And On Foreign Trade.

§ 1. Variations in the exchange, which originate in the Currency.

§ 2. Effect of a sudden increase of a metallic Currency, or of the sudden creation of Bank-Notes or other substitutes for Money.

§ 3. Effect of the increase of an inconvertible paper Currency. Real and nominal exchange.

Chapter XIX. Of The Rate Of Interest.

§ 1. The Rate of Interest depends on the Demand and Supply of Loans.

§ 2. Circumstances which Determine the Permanent Demand and Supply of Loans.

§ 3. Circumstances which Determine the Fluctuations.

§ 4. The Rate of Interest not really Connected with the value of Money, but often confounded with it.

§ 5. The Rate of Interest determines the price of land and of Securities.

Chapter XX. Of The Competition Of Different Countries In The Same Market.

§ 1. Causes which enable one Country to undersell another.

§ 2. High wages do not prevent one Country from underselling another.

§ 3. Low wages enable a Country to undersell another, when Peculiar to certain branches of Industry.

§ 4. -But not when common to All.

§ 5. Low profits as affecting the carrying Trade.

Chapter XXI. Of Distribution, As Affected By Exchange.

§ 1. Exchange and money make no Difference in the law of Wages.

§ 2. In the law of Rent.

§ 3. -Nor in the law of Profits.

Book IV. Influence Of The Progress Of Society On Production And Distribution.

Chapter I. Influence Of The Progress Of Industry And Population On Values And Prices.

§ 1. Tendency of the progress of society toward increased Command over the powers of Nature; increased Security, and increased Capacity of Co-Operation.

§ 2. Tendency to a Decline of the Value and Cost of Production of all Commodities.

§ 3. -except the products of Agriculture and Mining, which have a tendency to Rise.

§ 4. -that tendency from time to time Counteracted by Improvements in Production.

§ 5. Effect of the Progress of Society in moderating fluctuations of Value.

Chapter II. Influence Of The Progress Of Industry And Population On Rents, Profits, And Wages.

§ 1. Characteristic features of industrial Progress.

§ 2. First two cases, Population and Capital increasing, the arts of production stationary.

§ 3. The arts of production advancing, capital and population stationary.

§ 4. Theoretical results, if all three Elements progressive.

§ 5. Practical Results.

Chapter III. Of The Tendency Of Profits To A Minimum.

§ 1. Different Theories as to the fall of Profits.

§ 2. What determines the minimum rate of Profit?

§ 3. In old and opulent countries, profits habitually near to the minimum.

§ 4. -prevented from reaching it by commercial revulsions.

§ 5. -by improvements in Production.

§ 6. -by the importation of cheap Necessaries and Implements.

§ 7. -by the emigration of Capital.

Chapter IV. Consequences Of The Tendency Of Profits To A Minimum, And The Stationary State.

§ 1. Abstraction of Capital not necessarily a national loss.

§ 2. In opulent countries, the extension of machinery not detrimental but beneficial to Laborers.

§ 3. Stationary state of wealth and population dreaded by some writers, but not in itself undesirable.

Chapter V. On The Possible Futurity Of The Laboring-Classes.

§ 1. The possibility of improvement while Laborers remain merely receivers of Wages.

§ 2.-through small holdings, by which the landlord's gain is shared.

§ 3. -through co-operation, by which the manager's wages are shared.

§ 4. Distributive Co-operation.

§ 5. Productive Co-Operation.

§ 6. Industrial Partnership.

§ 7. People's Banks.

Book V. On The Influence Of Government.

Chapter I. On The General Principles Of Taxation.

§ 1. Four fundamental rules of Taxation.

§ 2. Grounds of the principle of Equality of Taxation.

§ 3. Should the same percentage be levied on all amounts of Income?

§ 4. Should the same percentage be levied on Perpetual and on Terminable Incomes?

§ 5. The increase of the rent of land from natural causes a fit subject of peculiar Taxation.

§ 6. Taxes falling on Capital not necessarily objectionable.

Chapter II. Of Direct Taxes.

§ 1. Direct taxes either on income or expenditure.

§ 2. Taxes on rent.

§ 3. -on profits.

§ 4. -on Wages.

§ 5. -on Income.

§ 6. A House-Tax.

Chapter III. Of Taxes On Commodities, Or Indirect Taxes.

§ 1. A Tax on all commodities would fall on Profits.

§ 2. Taxes on particular commodities fall on the consumer.

§ 3. Peculiar effects of taxes on Necessaries.

§ 4. -how modified by the tendency of profits to a minimum.

§ 5. Effects of discriminating Duties.

§ 6. Effects produced on international Exchange by Duties on Exports and on Imports.

Chapter IV. Comparison Between Direct And Indirect Taxation.

§ 1. Arguments for and against direct Taxation.

§ 2. What forms of indirect taxation are most eligible?

§ 3. Practical rules for indirect taxation.

§ 4. Taxation systems of the United States and other Countries.

§ 5. A Résumé of the general principles of taxation.

Chapter V. Of A National Debt.

§ 1. Is it desirable to defray extraordinary public expenses by loans?

§ 2. Not desirable to redeem a national Debt by a general Contribution.

§ 3. In what cases desirable to maintain a surplus revenue for the redemption of Debt.

Chapter VI. Of An Interference Of Government Grounded On Erroneous Theories.

§ 1. The doctrine of Protection to Native Industry.

§ 2. -had its origin in the Mercantile System.

§ 3. -supported by pleas of national subsistence and national defense.

§ 4. -on the ground of encouraging young industries; colonial policy.

§ 5. -on the ground of high wages.

§ 6. -on the ground of creating a diversity of industries.

§ 7. -on the ground that it lowers prices.

Appendix I. Bibliographies.

Appendix II. Examination Questions.

Footnotes

ПРЕДСТАВЛЯЮЩАЯ СОБОЙ СВЯЗНОЕ ИЗЛОЖЕНИЕ ПРИНЦИПОВ ДОКАЗАТЕЛЬСТВА И МЕТОДОВ НАУЧНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ

В ДВУХ ТОМАХ

ТОМ I.

СЕДЬМОЕ ИЗДАНИЕ

Джон Стюарт Милль

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ПЕРВОГО ТОМА

СИСТЕМА ЛОГИКИ, СИЛЛОГИСТИЧЕСКОЙ И ИНДУКТИВНОЙ, ТОМ II.

| INTRODUCTION.
§ 1. | A definition at the commencement of a subject must be provisional | 1
2. | Is logic the art and science of reasoning? | 2
3. | Or the art and science of the pursuit of truth? | 3
4. | Logic is concerned with inferences, not with intuitive truths | 5
5. | Relation of logic to the other sciences | 8
6. | Its utility, how shown | 10
7. | Definition of logic stated and illustrated | 11
| BOOK I. OF NAMES AND PROPOSITIONS.
| Chapter I. Of the Necessity of commencing with an Analysis of Language.
§ 1. | Theory of names, why a necessary part of logic | 17
2. | First step in the analysis of Propositions | 18
3. | Names must be studied before Things | 21
| Chapter II. Of Names.
§ 1. | Names are names of things, not of our ideas | 23
2. | Words which are not names, but parts of names | 24
3. | General and Singular names | 26
4. | Concrete and Abstract | 29
5. | Connotative and Non-connotative | 31
6. | Positive and Negative | 42
7. | Relative and Absolute | 44
8. | Univocal and Æquivocal | 47
| Chapter III. Of the Things denoted by Names.
§ 1. | Necessity of an enumeration of Nameable Things. The Categories of Aristotle | 49
2. | Ambiguity of the most general names | 51
3. | Feelings, or states of consciousness | 54
4. | Feelings must be distinguished from their physical antecedents. Perceptions, what | 56
5. | Volitions, and Actions, what | 58
6. | Substance and Attribute | 59
7. | Body | 61
8. | Mind | 67
9. | Qualities | 69
10. | Relations | 72
11. | Resemblance | 74
12. | Quantity | 78
13. | All attributes of bodies are grounded on states of consciousness | 79
14. | So also all attributes of mind | 80
15. | Recapitulation | 81
| Chapter IV. Of Propositions.
§ 1. | Nature and office of the copula | 85
2. | Affirmative and Negative propositions | 87
3. | Simple and Complex | 89
4. | Universal, Particular, and Singular | 93
| Chapter V. Of the Import of Propositions.
§ 1. | Doctrine that a proposition is the expression of a relation between two ideas | 96
2. | Doctrine that it is the expression of a relation between the meanings of two names | 99
3. | Doctrine that it consists in referring something to, or excluding something from, a class | 103
4. | What it really is | 107
5. | It asserts (or denies) a sequence, a coexistence, a simple existence, a causation | 110
6. | —or a resemblance | 112
7. | Propositions of which the terms are abstract | 115
| Chapter VI. Of Propositions merely Verbal.
§ 1. | Essential and Accidental propositions | 119
2. | All essential propositions are identical propositions | 120
3. | Individuals have no essences | 124
4. | Real propositions, how distinguished from verbal | 126
5. | Two modes of representing the import of a Real proposition | 127
| Chapter VII. Of the Nature of Classification, and the Five Predicables.
§ 1. | Classification, how connected with Naming | 129
2. | The Predicables, what | 131
3. | Genus and Species | 131
4. | Kinds have a real existence in nature | 134
5. | Differentia | 139
6. | Differentiæ for general purposes, and differentiæ for special or technical purposes | 141
7. | Proprium | 144
8. | Accidens | 146
| Chapter VIII. Of Definition.
§ 1. | A definition, what | 148
2. | Every name can be defined, whose meaning is susceptible of analysis | 150
3. | Complete, how distinguished from incomplete definitions | 152
4. | —and from descriptions | 154
5. | What are called definitions of Things, are definitions of Names with an implied assumption of the existence of Things corresponding to them | 157
6. | —even when such things do not in reality exist | 165
7. | Definitions, though of names only, must be grounded on knowledge of the corresponding Things | 167
| BOOK II. OF REASONING.
| Chapter I. Of Inference, or Reasoning, in general.
§ 1. | Retrospect of the preceding book | 175
2. | Inferences improperly so called | 177
3. | Inferences proper, distinguished into inductions and ratiocinations | 181
| Chapter II. Of Ratiocination, or Syllogism.
§ 1. | Analysis of the Syllogism | 184
2. | The dictum de omni not the foundation of reasoning, but a mere identical proposition | 191
3. | What is the really fundamental axiom of Ratiocination | 196
4. | The other form of the axiom | 199
| Chapter III. Of the Functions, and Logical Value, of the Syllogism.
§ 1. | Is the syllogism a petitio principii? | 202
2. | Insufficiency of the common theory | 203
3. | All inference is from particulars to particulars | 205
4. | General propositions are a record of such inferences, and the rules of the syllogism are rules for the interpretation of the record | 214
5. | The syllogism not the type of reasoning, but a test of it | 218
6. | The true type, what | 222
7. | Relation between Induction and Deduction | 226
8. | Objections answered | 227
9. | Of Formal Logic, and its relation to the Logic of Truth | 231
| Chapter IV. Of Trains of Reasoning, and Deductive Sciences.
§ 1. | For what purpose trains of reasoning exist | 234
2. | A train of reasoning is a series of inductive inferences | 234
3. | —from particulars to particulars through marks of marks | 237
4. | Why there are deductive sciences | 240
5. | Why other sciences still remain experimental | 244
6. | Experimental sciences may become deductive by the progress of experiment | 246
7. | In what manner this usually takes place | 247
| Chapter V. Of Demonstration, and Necessary Truths.
§ 1. | The Theorems of geometry are necessary truths only in the sense of necessarily following from hypotheses | 251
2. | Those hypotheses are real facts with some of their circumstances exaggerated or omitted | 255
3. | Some of the first principles of geometry are axioms, and these are not hypothetical | 256
4. | —but are experimental truths | 258
5. | An objection answered | 261
6. | Dr. Whewell's opinions on axioms examined | 264
| Chapter VI. The same Subject continued.
§ 1. | All deductive sciences are inductive | 281
2. | The propositions of the science of number are not verbal, but generalizations from experience | 284
3. | In what sense hypothetical | 289
4. | The characteristic property of demonstrative science is to be hypothetical | 290
5. | Definition of demonstrative evidence | 292
| Chapter VII. Examination of some Opinions opposed to the preceding doctrines.
§ 1. | Doctrine of the Universal Postulate | 294
2. | The test of inconceivability does not represent the aggregate of past experience | 296
3. | —nor is implied in every process of thought | 299
4. | Sir W. Hamilton's opinion on the Principles of Contradiction and Excluded Middle | 306
| BOOK III. OF INDUCTION.
| Chapter I. Preliminary Observations on Induction in general.
§ 1. | Importance of an Inductive Logic | 313
2. | The logic of science is also that of business and life | 314
| Chapter II. Of Inductions improperly so called.
§ 1. | Inductions distinguished from verbal transformations | 319
2. | —from inductions, falsely so called, in mathematics | 321
3. | —and from descriptions | 323
4. | Examination of Dr. Whewell's theory of Induction | 326
5. | Further illustration of the preceding remarks | 336
| Chapter III. On the Ground of Induction.
§ 1. | Axiom of the uniformity of the course of nature | 341
2. | Not true in every sense. Induction per enumerationem simplicem | 346
3. | The question of Inductive Logic stated | 348
| Chapter IV. Of Laws of Nature.
§ 1. | The general regularity in nature is a tissue of partial regularities, called laws | 351
2. | Scientific induction must be grounded on previous spontaneous inductions | 355
3. | Are there any inductions fitted to be a test of all others? | 357
| Chapter V. Of the Law of Universal Causation.
§ 1. | The universal law of successive phenomena is the Law of Causation | 360
2. | —i.e. the law that every consequent has an invariable antecedent | 363
3. | The cause of a phenomenon is the assemblage of its conditions | 365
4. | The distinction of agent and patient illusory | 373
5. | The cause is not the invariable antecedent, but the unconditional invariable antecedent | 375
6. | Can a cause be simultaneous with its effect? | 380
7. | Idea of a Permanent Cause, or original natural agent | 383
8. | Uniformities of coexistence between effects of different permanent causes, are not laws | 386
9. | Doctrine that volition is an efficient cause, examined | 387
| Chapter VI. Of the Composition of Causes.
§ 1. | Two modes of the conjunct action of causes, the mechanical and the chemical | 405
2. | The composition of causes the general rule; the other case exceptional | 408
3. | Are effects proportional to their causes? | 412
| Chapter VII. Of Observation and Experiment.
§ 1. | The first step of inductive inquiry is a mental analysis of complex phenomena into their elements | 414
2. | The next is an actual separation of those elements | 416
3. | Advantages of experiment over observation | 417
4. | Advantages of observation over experiment | 420
| Chapter VIII. Of the Four Methods of Experimental Inquiry.
§ 1. | Method of Agreement | 425
2. | Method of Difference | 428
3. | Mutual relation of these two methods | 429
4. | Joint Method of Agreement and Difference | 433
5. | Method of Residues | 436
6. | Method of Concomitant Variations | 437
7. | Limitations of this last method | 443
| Chapter IX. Miscellaneous Examples of the Four Methods.
§ 1. | Liebig's theory of metallic poisons | 449
2. | Theory of induced electricity | 453
3. | Dr. Wells' theory of dew | 457
4. | Dr. Brown-Séquard's theory of cadaveric rigidity | 465
5. | Examples of the Method of Residues | 471
6. | Dr. Whewell's objections to the Four Methods | 475
| Chapter X. Of Plurality of Causes; and of the Intermixture of Effects.
§ 1. | One effect may have several causes | 482
2. | —which is the source of a characteristic imperfection of the Method of Agreement | 483
3. | Plurality of Causes, how ascertained | 487
4. | Concurrence of Causes which do not compound their effects | 489
5. | Difficulties of the investigation, when causes compound their effects | 494
6. | Three modes of investigating the laws of complex effects | 499
7. | The method of simple observation inapplicable | 500
8. | The purely experimental method inapplicable | 501
| Chapter XI. Of the Deductive Method.
§ 1. | First stage; ascertainment of the laws of the separate causes by direct induction | 507
2. | Second stage; ratiocination from the simple laws of the complex cases | 512
3. | Third stage; verification by specific experience | 514
| Chapter XII. Of the Explanation of Laws of Nature.
§ 1. | Explanation defined | 518
2. | First mode of explanation, by resolving the law of a complex effect into the laws of the concurrent causes and the fact of their coexistence | 518
3. | Second mode; by the detection of an intermediate link in the sequence | 519
4. | Laws are always resolved into laws more general than themselves | 520
5. | Third mode; the subsumption of less general laws under a more general one | 524
6. | What the explanation of a law of nature amounts to | 526
| Chapter XIII. Miscellaneous Examples of the Explanation of Laws of Nature.
§ 1. | The general theories of the sciences | 529
2. | Examples from chemical speculations | 531
3. | Example from Dr. Brown-Séquard's researches on the nervous system | 533
4. | Examples of following newly-discovered laws into their complex manifestations | 534
5. | Examples of empirical generalizations, afterwards confirmed and explained deductively | 536
6. | Example from mental science | 538
7. | Tendency of all the sciences to become deductive | 539

ПРЕДСТАВЛЯЮЩАЯ СОБОЙ СВЯЗНОЕ ИЗЛОЖЕНИЕ ПРИНЦИПОВ ДОКАЗАТЕЛЬСТВА И МЕТОДОВ НАУЧНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ

Джон Стюарт Милль

В ДВУХ ТОМАХ

СЕДЬМОЕ ИЗДАНИЕ

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ВТОРОГО ТОМА

СИСТЕМА ЛОГИКИ, СИЛЛОГИСТИЧЕСКОЙ И ИНДУКТИВНОЙ

| BOOK III. ON INDUCTION.—(Continued.)
| Chapter XIV. Of the Limits to the Explanation of Laws of Nature; and of Hypotheses.
§ 1. | Can all the sequences in nature be resolvable into one law? | 3
2. | Ultimate laws cannot be less numerous than the distinguishable feelings of our nature | 4
3. | In what sense ultimate facts can be explained | 7
4. | The proper use of scientific hypotheses | 8
5. | Their indispensableness | 16
6. | Legitimate, how distinguished from illegitimate hypotheses | 18
7. | Some inquiries apparently hypothetical are really inductive | 25
| Chapter XV. Of Progressive Effects; and of the Continued Action of Causes.
§ 1. | How a progressive effect results from the simple continuance of the cause | 29
2. | —and from the progressiveness of the cause | 33
3. | Derivative laws generated from a single ultimate law | 36
| Chapter XVI. Of Empirical Laws.
§ 1. | Definition of an empirical law | 38
2. | Derivative laws commonly depend on collocations | 39
3. | The collocations of the permanent causes are not reducible to any law | 41
4. | Hence empirical laws cannot be relied on beyond the limits of actual experience | 41
5. | Generalizations which rest only on the Method of Agreement can only be received as empirical laws | 43
6. | Signs from which an observed uniformity of sequence may be presumed to be resolvable | 44
7. | Two kinds of empirical laws | 47
| Chapter XVII. Of Chance, and its Elimination.
§ 1. | The proof of empirical laws depends on the theory of chance | 49
2. | Chance defined and characterized | 50
3. | The elimination of chance | 55
4. | Discovery of residual phenomena by eliminating chance | 57
5. | The doctrine of chances | 59
| Chapter XVIII. Of the Calculation of Chances.
§ 1. | Foundation of the doctrine of chances, as taught by mathematics | 61
2. | The doctrine tenable | 63
3. | On what foundation it really rests | 64
4. | Its ultimate dependence on causation | 68
5. | Theorem of the doctrine of chances which relates to the cause of a given event | 72
6. | How applicable to the elimination of chance | 74
| Chapter XIX. Of the Extension of Derivative Laws to Adjacent Cases.
§ 1. | Derivative laws, when not casual, are almost always contingent on collocations | 78
2. | On what grounds they can be extended to cases beyond the bounds of actual experience | 80
3. | Those cases must be adjacent cases | 82
| Chapter XX. Of Analogy.
§ 1. | Various senses of the word analogy | 86
2. | Nature of analogical evidence | 87
3. | On what circumstances its value depends | 91
| Chapter XXI. Of the Evidence of the Law of Universal Causation.
§ 1. | The law of causality does not rest on an instinct | 95
2. | But on an induction by simple enumeration | 100
3. | In what cases such induction is allowable | 102
4. | The universal prevalence of the law of causality, on what grounds admissible | 105
| Chapter XXII. Of Uniformities of Coexistence not dependent on Causation.
§ 1. | Uniformities of coexistence which result from laws of sequence | 110
2. | The properties of Kinds are uniformities of coexistence | 111
3. | Some are derivative, others ultimate | 113
4. | No universal axiom of coexistence | 114
5. | The evidence of uniformities of coexistence, how measured | 117
6. | When derivative, their evidence is that of empirical laws | 117
7. | So also when ultimate | 119
8. | The evidence stronger in proportion as the law is more general | 120
9. | Every distinct Kind must be examined | 121
| Chapter XXIII. Of Approximate Generalizations, and Probable Evidence.
§ 1. | The inferences called probable, rest on approximate generalizations | 124
2. | Approximate generalizations less useful in science than in life | 124
3. | In what cases they may be resorted to | 126
4. | In what manner proved | 127
5. | With what precautions employed | 130
6. | The two modes of combining probabilities | 131
7. | How approximate generalizations may be converted into accurate generalizations equivalent to them | 136
| Chapter XXIV. Of the Remaining Laws of Nature.
§ 1. | Propositions which assert mere existence | 139
2. | Resemblance, considered as a subject of science | 141
3. | The axioms and theorems of mathematics comprise the principal laws of resemblance | 143
4. | —and those of order in place, and rest on induction by simple enumeration | 145
5. | The propositions of arithmetic affirm the modes of formation of some given number | 146
6. | Those of algebra affirm the equivalence of different modes of formation of numbers generally | 151
7. | The propositions of geometry are laws of outward nature | 154
8. | Why geometry is almost entirely deductive | 156
9. | Function of mathematical truths in the other sciences, and limits of that function | 158
| Chapter XXV. Of the Grounds of Disbelief.
§ 1. | Improbability and impossibility | 161
2. | Examination of Hume's doctrine of miracles | 162
3. | The degrees of improbability correspond to differences in the nature of the generalization with which an assertion conflicts | 166
4. | A fact is not incredible because the chances are against it | 170
5. | Are coincidences less credible than other facts? | 172
6. | An opinion of Laplace examined | 175
| BOOK IV. OF OPERATIONS SUBSIDIARY TO INDUCTION.
| Chapter I. Of Observation and Description.
§ 1. | Observation, how far a subject of logic | 183
2. | A great part of what seems observation is really inference | 184
3. | The description of an observation affirms more than is contained in the observation | 187
4. | —namely an agreement among phenomena; and the comparison of phenomena to ascertain such agreements is a preliminary to induction | 190
| Chapter II. Of Abstraction, or the Formation of Conceptions.
§ 1. | The comparison which is a preliminary to induction implies general conceptions | 193
2. | —but these need not be pre-existent | 194
3. | A general conception, originally the result of a comparison, becomes itself the type of comparison | 198
4. | What is meant by appropriate conceptions | 200
5. | —and by clear conceptions | 203
6. | Further illustration of the subject | 205
| Chapter III. Of Naming, as subsidiary to Induction.
§ 1. | The fundamental property of names as an instrument of thought | 209
2. | Names are not indispensable to induction | 210
3. | In what manner subservient to it | 211
4. | General names not a mere contrivance to economize the use of language | 213
| Chapter IV. Of the Requisites of a Philosophical Language, and the Principles of Definition.
§ 1. | First requisite of philosophical language, a steady and determinate meaning for every general name | 215
2. | Names in common use have often a loose connotation | 215
3. | —which the logician should fix, with as little alteration as possible | 218
4. | Why definition is often a question not of words but of things | 220
5. | How the logician should deal with the transitive applications of words | 224
6. | Evil consequences of casting off any portion of the customary connotation of words | 229
| Chapter V. On the Natural History of the Variations in the Meaning of Terms.
§ 1. | How circumstances originally accidental become incorporated into the meaning of words | 236
2. | —and sometimes become the whole meaning | 238
3. | Tendency of words to become generalized | 240
4. | —and to become specialized | 243
| Chapter VI. The Principles of a Philosophical Language further considered.
§ 1. | Second requisite of philosophical language, a name for every important meaning | 248
2. | —viz. first, an accurate descriptive terminology | 248
3. | —secondly, a name for each of the more important results of scientific abstraction | 252
4. | —thirdly, a nomenclature, or system of the names of Kinds | 255
5. | Peculiar nature of the connotation of names which belong to a nomenclature | 257
6. | In what cases language may, and may not, be used mechanically | 259
| Chapter VII. Of Classification, as subsidiary to Induction.
§ 1. | Classification as here treated of, wherein different from the classification implied in naming | 266
2. | Theory of natural groups | 267
3. | Are natural groups given by type, or by definition? | 271
4. | Kinds are natural groups | 274
5. | How the names of Kinds should be constructed | 280
| Chapter VIII. Of Classification by Series.
§ 1. | Natural groups should be arranged in a natural series | 284
2. | The arrangement should follow the degrees of the main phenomenon | 285
3. | —which implies the assumption of a type-species | 287
4. | How the divisions of the series should be determined | 288
5. | Zoology affords the completest type of scientific classification | 289
| BOOK V. ON FALLACIES.
| Chapter I. Of Fallacies in General.
§ 1. | Theory of fallacies a necessary part of logic | 295
2. | Casual mistakes are not fallacies | 297
3. | The moral sources of erroneous opinion, how related to the intellectual | 297
| Chapter II. Classification of Fallacies.
§ 1. | On what criteria a classification of fallacies should be grounded | 301
2. | The five classes of fallacies | 302
3. | The reference of a fallacy to one or another class is sometimes arbitrary | 305
| Chapter III. Fallacies of Simple Inspection, or à priori Fallacies.
§ 1. | Character of this class of Fallacies | 309
2. | Natural prejudice of mistaking subjective laws for objective, exemplified in popular superstitions | 310
3. | Natural prejudices, that things which we think of together must exist together, and that what is inconceivable must be false | 314
4. | Natural prejudice, of ascribing objective existence to abstractions | 321
5. | Fallacy of the Sufficient Reason | 322
6. | Natural prejudice, that the differences in nature correspond to the distinctions in language | 325
7. | Prejudice, that a phenomenon cannot have more than one cause | 329
8. | Prejudice, that the conditions of a phenomenon must resemble the phenomenon | 332
| Chapter IV. Fallacies of Observation.
§ 1. | Non-observation, and Mal-observation | 341
2. | Non-observation of instances, and non-observation of circumstances | 341
3. | Examples of the former | 342
4. | —and of the latter | 347
5. | Mal-observation characterized and exemplified | 352
| Chapter V. Fallacies of Generalization.
§ 1. | Character of the class | 356
2. | Certain kinds of generalization must always be groundless | 356
3. | Attempts to resolve phenomena radically different into the same | 357
4. | Fallacy of mistaking empirical for causal laws | 359
5. | Post hoc, ergo propter hoc; and the deductive fallacy corresponding to it | 364
6. | Fallacy of False Analogies | 366
7. | Function of metaphors in reasoning | 373
8. | How fallacies of generalization grow out of bad classification | 375
| Chapter VI. Fallacies of Ratiocination.
§ 1. | Introductory Remarks | 377
2. | Fallacies in the conversion and æquipollency of propositions | 377
3. | Fallacies in the syllogistic process | 379
4. | Fallacy of changing the premises | 379
| Chapter VII. Fallacies of Confusion.
§ 1. | Fallacy of Ambiguous Terms | 384
2. | Fallacy of Petitio Principii | 396
3. | Fallacy of Ignoratio Elenchi | 405
| BOOK VI. ON THE LOGIC OF THE MORAL SCIENCES.
| Chapter I. Introductory Remarks.
§ 1. | The backward state of the Moral Sciences can only be remedied by applying to them the methods of Physical Science, duly extended and generalized | 413
2. | How far this can be attempted in the present work | 415
| Chapter II. Of Liberty and Necessity.
§ 1. | Are human actions subject to the law of causality? | 417
2. | The doctrine commonly called Philosophical Necessity, in what sense true | 418
3. | Inappropriateness and pernicious effect of the term Necessity | 420
4. | A motive not always the anticipation of a pleasure or a pain | 424
| Chapter III. That there is, or may be, a Science of Human Nature.
§ 1. | There may be sciences which are not exact sciences | 426
2. | To what scientific type the Science of Human Nature corresponds | 429
| Chapter IV. Of the Laws of Mind.
§ 1. | What is meant by Laws of Mind | 432
2. | Is there a science of Psychology? | 433
3. | The principal investigations of Psychology characterized | 435
4. | Relation of mental facts to physical conditions | 440
| Chapter V. Of Ethology, or the Science of the Formation of Character.
§ 1. | The Empirical Laws of Human Nature | 445
2. | —are merely approximate generalizations. The universal laws are those of the formation of character | 447
3. | The laws of the formation of character cannot be ascertained by observation and experiment | 449
4. | —but must be studied deductively | 454
5. | The Principles of Ethology are the axiomata media of mental science | 455
6. | Ethology characterized | 459
| Chapter VI. General Considerations on the Social Science.
§ 1. | Are Social Phenomena a subject of Science? | 461
2. | Of what nature the Social Science must be | 463
| Chapter VII. Of the Chemical, or Experimental, Method in the Social Science.
§ 1. | Characters of the mode of thinking which deduces political doctrines from specific experience | 466
2. | In the Social Science experiments are impossible | 468
3. | —the Method of Difference inapplicable | 469
4. | —and the Methods of Agreement, and of Concomitant Variations, inconclusive | 471
5. | The Method of Residues also inconclusive, and presupposes Deduction | 472
| Chapter VIII. Of the Geometrical, or Abstract Method.
§ 1. | Characters of this mode of thinking | 476
2. | Examples of the Geometrical Method | 478
3. | The interest-philosophy of the Bentham school | 479
| Chapter IX. Of the Physical, or Concrete Deductive Method.
§ 1. | The Direct and Inverse Deductive Methods | 486
2. | Difficulties of the Direct Deductive Method in the Social Science | 489
3. | To what extent the different branches of sociological speculation can be studied apart. Political Economy characterized | 492
4. | Political Ethology, or the science of national character | 497
5. | The Empirical Laws of the Social Science | 500
6. | The Verification of the Social Science | 502
| Chapter X. Of the Inverse Deductive, or Historical Method.
§ 1. | Distinction between the general Science of Society, and special sociological inquiries | 506
2. | What is meant by a State of Society? | 506
3. | The Progressiveness of Man and Society | 508
4. | The laws of the succession of states of society can only be ascertained by the Inverse Deductive Method | 511
5. | Social Statics, or the science of the Coexistences of Social Phenomena | 513
6. | Social Dynamics, or the science of the Successions of Social Phenomena | 521
7. | Outlines of the Historical Method | 522
8. | Future prospects of Sociological Inquiry | 525
| Chapter XI. Additional Elucidations of the Science of History.
§ 1. | The subjection of historical facts to uniform laws is verified by statistics | 529
2. | —does not imply the insignificance of moral causes | 532
3. | —nor the inefficacy of the characters of individuals and of the acts of governments | 535
4. | The historical importance of eminent men and of the policy of governments illustrated | 540
| Chapter XII. Of the Logic of Practice, or Art; including Morality and Policy.
§ 1. | Morality not a science, but an Art | 544
2. | Relation between rules of art and the theorems of the corresponding science | 544
3. | What is the proper function of rules of art? | 546
4. | Art cannot be Deductive | 548
5. | Every Art consists of truths of Science, arranged in the order suitable for some practical use | 549
6. | Teleology, or the Doctrine of Ends | 550
7. | Necessity of an ultimate standard, or first principle of Teleology | 552
8. | Conclusion | 554

ПРЕДСТАВЛЯЮЩАЯ СОБОЙ СВЯЗНОЕ ИЗЛОЖЕНИЕ ПРИНЦИПОВ ДОКАЗАТЕЛЬСТВА И МЕТОДОВ НАУЧНОГО ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ.

Джон Стюарт Милль

Предисловие к первому изданию.

CONTENTS

Предисловие к третьему и четвертому изданиям.

Введение.

АНАЛИЗ ФЕНОМЕНОВ ЧЕЛОВЕЧЕСКОГО РАЗУМА

Book I | Of Names And Propositions.
Chapter I | Of The Necessity Of Commencing With An Analysis Of Language.
Chapter II | Of Names.
Chapter III | Of The Things Denoted By Names.
Chapter IV | Of Propositions.
Chapter V | Of The Import Of Propositions.
Chapter VI | Of Propositions Merely Verbal.
Chapter VII | Of The Nature Of Classification, And The Five Predicables.
Chapter VIII | Of Definition.
Book II | On Reasoning.
Chapter I | Of Inference, Or Reasoning, In General.
Chapter II | Of Ratiocination, Or Syllogism.
Chapter III | Of The Functions And Logical Value Of The Syllogism.
Chapter IV | Of Trains Of Reasoning, And Deductive Sciences.
Chapter V | Of Demonstration, And Necessary Truths.
Chapter VI | The Same Subject Continued.
Chapter VII | Examination Of Some Opinions Opposed To The Preceding Doctrines.
Book III | Of Induction.
Chapter I | Preliminary Observations On Induction In General.
Chapter II | Of Inductions Improperly So Called.
Chapter III | Of The Ground Of Induction.
Chapter IV | Of Laws Of Nature.
Chapter V | Of The Law Of Universal Causation.
Chapter VI | On The Composition Of Causes.
Chapter VII | On Observation And Experiment.
Chapter VIII | Of The Four Methods Of Experimental Inquiry.
Chapter IX | Miscellaneous Examples Of The Four Methods.
Chapter X | Of Plurality Of Causes, And Of The Intermixture Of Effects.
Chapter XI | Of The Deductive Method.
Chapter XII | Of The Explanation Of Laws Of Nature.
Chapter XIII | Miscellaneous Examples Of The Explanation Of Laws Of Nature.
Chapter XIV | Of The Limits To The Explanation Of Laws Of Nature; And Of Hypotheses.
Chapter XV | Of Progressive Effects; And Of The Continued Action Of Causes.
Chapter XVI | Of Empirical Laws.
Chapter XVII | Of Chance And Its Elimination.
Chapter XVIII | Of The Calculation Of Chances.
Chapter XIX | Of The Extension Of Derivative Laws To Adjacent Cases.
Chapter XX | Of Analogy.
Chapter XXI | Of The Evidence Of The Law Of Universal Causation.
Chapter XXII | Of Uniformities Of Co-Existence Not Dependent On Causation.
Chapter XXIV | Of The Remaining Laws Of Nature.
Chapter XXV | Of The Grounds Of Disbelief.
Book IV | Of Operations Subsidiary To Induction.
Chapter I | Of Observation And Description.
Chapter II | Of Abstraction, Or The Formation Of Conceptions.
Chapter III | Of Naming, As Subsidiary To Induction.
Chapter IV | Of The Requisites Of A Philosophical Language, And The Principles Of Definition.
Chapter V | On The Natural History Of The Variations In The Meaning Of Terms.
Chapter VI | The Principles Of A Philosophical Language Further Considered.
Chapter VII | Of Classification, As Subsidiary To Induction.
Chapter VIII | Of Classification By Series.
Book V | On Fallacies.
Chapter I | Of Fallacies In General.
Chapter II | Classification Of Fallacies.
Chapter III | Fallacies Of Simple Inspection; Or A Priori Fallacies.
Chapter IV | Fallacies Of Observation.
Chapter V | Fallacies Of Generalization.
Chapter VI | Fallacies Of Ratiocination.
Chapter VII | Fallacies Of Confusion.
Book VI | On The Logic Of The Moral Sciences.
Chapter I | Introductory Remarks.
Chapter II | Of Liberty And Necessity.
Chapter III | That There Is, Or May Be, A Science Of Human Nature.
Chapter IV | Of The Laws Of Mind.
Chapter V | Of Ethology, Or The Science Of The Formation Of Character.
Chapter VI | General Considerations On The Social Science.
Chapter VII | Of The Chemical, Or Experimental, Method In The Social Science.
Chapter VIII | Of The Geometrical, Or Abstract, Method.
Chapter IX | Of The Physical, Or Concrete Deductive, Method.
Chapter X | Of The Inverse Deductive, Or Historical, Method.
Chapter XI | Additional Elucidations Of The Science Of History.
Chapter XII | Of The Logic Of Practice, Or Art; Including Morality And Policy.
Footnotes

Джеймс Милль (Джон Стюарт Милль)

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ПЕРВОГО ТОМА

СОДЕРЖАНИЕ ВТОРОГО ТОМА

| PAGE
INTRODUCTION | 1
CHAPTER I.
Sensation | 2
| SECTION | 1. Smell | 7
| 2. Hearing | 16
| 3. Sight | 21
| 4. Taste | 25
| 5. Touch | 28
| 6. Sensations of Disorganization, or of the Approach to Disorganization, in any part of the Body | 37
| 7. Muscular Sensations, or those Feelings which accompany the Action of the Muscles | 40
| 8. Sensations in the Alimentary Canal | 45
CHAPTER II.
Ideas | 51
CHAPTER III.
The Association of Ideas | 70
CHAPTER IV.
Naming | 127
| SECTION | 1. Nouns Substantive | 134
| 2. Nouns Adjective | 134
| 3. Verbs | 151
| 4. Predication | 159
| SECTION | 5. Pronouns | 194
| 6. Adverbs | 199
| 7. Prepositions | 201
| 8. Conjunctions | 212
CHAPTER V.
Consciousness | 223
CHAPTER VI.
Conception | 233
CHAPTER VII.
Imagination | 238
CHAPTER VIII.
Classification | 247
CHAPTER IX.
Abstraction | 294
CHAPTER X.
Memory | 318
CHAPTER XI.
Belief | 341
CHAPTER XII.
Ratiocination | 424
CHAPTER XIII.
Evidence | 428
APPENDIX | 440

ПОЛНАЯ ЛИЦЕНЗИЯ PROJECT GUTENBERG™

CHAPTER XIV. | PAGE
Some Names which require a particular Explanation | 1
| SECTION | 1. Names of Names | 3
| 2. Relative Terms | 6
| Abstract Relative Terms | 72
| 3. Numbers | 89
| 4. Privative Terms | 99
| 5. Time | 116
| 6. Motion | 142
| 7. Identity | 164
CHAPTER XV.
Reflection | 176
CHAPTER XVI.
The Distinction between the Intellectual and Active Powers of the Human Mind | 181
CHAPTER XVII.
Pleasurable and Painful Sensations | 184
CHAPTER XVIII.
Causes of the Pleasurable and Painful Sensations | 187
CHAPTER XIX.
Ideas of the Pleasurable and Painful Sensations, and of the Causes of them | 189
CHAPTER XX.
The Pleasurable and Painful Sensations, contemplated as passed, or future | 196
CHAPTER XXI.
The Causes of Pleasurable and Painful Sensations, contemplated as passed, or future | 201
| SECTION | 1. The immediate Causes of Pleasurable and Painful Sensations, contemplated as passed, or as future | 201
| 2. The Remote Causes of Pleasurable and Painful Sensations contemplated as passed, or future | 206
| SUB-SECT. | 1. Wealth, Power, and Dignity, and their Contraries, contemplated as Causes of our Pleasures and Pains | 207
| 2. Our Fellow-Creatures contemplated as Causes of our Pleasures and Pains | 214
| 1.—Friendship | 216
| 2.—Kindness | 216
| 3.—Family | 218
| 4.—Country | 226
| 5.—Party; Class | 227
| 6.—Mankind | 229
| 3. The Objects called Sublime and Beautiful, and their Contraries, contemplated as Causes of our Pleasures and Pains | 230
CHAPTER XXII.
Motives | 256
| SECTION | 1. Pleasurable or Painful States, contemplated as the Consequents of our own Acts | 256
| 2. Causes of our Pleasurable and Painful States, contemplated as the Consequents of our own Acts | 265
CHAPTER XXIII.
The Acts of our Fellow-creatures, which are Causes of our Pains and Pleasures, contemplated as Consequents of our own Acts | 280
CHAPTER XXIV.
The Will | 327
CHAPTER XXV.
Intention | 396

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